Five states, together with Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya, recorded scores lower than the national average of 0.701, with Kedah having the lowest at 0.593, Harian Metro reported.

This was followed by Perak with a score of 0.648, Kelantan (0.654), Kuala Lumpur (0.659), Selangor (0.675), Penang (0.692) and Putrajaya (0.693).

Johor was on par with the national average, while seven states and Labuan scored higher.

Pahang recorded the highest National Unity Index score at 0.817, followed by Melaka (0.816), Sarawak (0.791), Terengganu (0.745), Negeri Sembilan (0.731), Sabah (0.722), Perlis (0.720) and Labuan (0.719).

The index was calculated following a survey of 9,448 respondents aged 18 and above, involving Malays (60.3%), Chinese (19.1%), Indians (6%), Sabah Bumiputeras (8.8%), Sarawak Bumiputeras (4.4%) and others (1.4%).

The bulk of interviewees were from urban areas at 76.7%, with 55.1% of them being men and the remaining 44.9% women.

The survey also looked into social deficit factors, or issues that cause social division in the country, with ethnicity cited by 60.3% of interviewees, followed by politics and federalism (56.9%), religion (56.7%) and social class (47.5%).

It also took into account five factors in determining the perception of respondents, namely education, language, generational gap, gender and the urban-rural divide.

The study also found that social media had an increasing influence on the emotions and perceptions of those surveyed.

The ministry said the overall findings of the National Unity Index for 2025 showed that the country was on the right track when it came to unity, with the majority of Malaysians living in peace while being respectful of the nation’s plural society.

However, it said there is a need for continuous efforts to strengthen inter-ethnic ties and to build a more inclusive national ethos for lasting harmony.