Azrul Mohd Khalib, head of the Galen Centre for Health and Social Policy, said: “There are no shortcuts to public health, you have to do the hard work of informing and convincing people.”

“Threats of no-pay leave, suspension, or sacking are shortcuts that are arguably unnecessary and disproportionate,” he said.

Civil servants have been told in a circular from the Public Service Department that those who refuse the Covid-19 vaccine could face disciplinary action or termination. In August, the army sacked a sergeant who refused to be vaccinated.

Azrul said the government should exercise restraint. Punitive measures could be challenged or reviewed in court, where the outcome would be uncertain, and unwelcome precedents may be set. The punitive action might also be overturned.

Malaysian Medical Association president Dr Koh Kar Chai said suspension of errant staff would be stringent enough.

“The best solution would be creating awareness among the public healthcare workers to take the vaccine to protect themselves and others,” said Dr Koh.